A (very) brief history of public management and policy

Public management and policymaking have been shaped by various theories and approaches over time. While this book does not purport to offer a comprehensive overview of public management theory, it nevertheless feels important to situate this work in the context of its history. Classical public administration Classical Public Administration theory emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It is often associated with the foundational works and thoughts of scholars such as Woodrow Wilson, Max Weber, and Frederick Taylor, who sought to bring about efficiency, predictability, and standardized procedures in the management of public organizations. The core principles and characteristics of Classical Public Administration include:

• Hierarchical Organization Structure: It is important to establish a clear, hierarchical structure within organizations, where authority and responsibilities are clearly defined, and there is a distinct chain of command.

• Division of Labor: Tasks should be specialised and overseen by people with specific skills and expertise. By dividing work into specific tasks, each employee becomes highly skilled in their particular area, leading to increased efficiency and productivity.

• Impersonality: Decisions and actions within the organization are made based on established rules and procedures, rather than personal preferences or relationships.

• Merit-based Advancement: Employees should be selected and promoted based on their abilities and performance, rather than nepotism or patronage.

• Formal Rules, Norms and Procedures: Clear, formal rules and procedures should be the basis for governing operations. In addition, authority within organizations should be grounded in legal statutes and bureaucratic norms, rather than in traditional or charismatic forms of leadership. New Public Administration New Public Administration was born out of the Minnowbrook Conference in 1968, which was attended by a group of young public administration scholars who gathered to discuss and propose a new direction for the field. These scholars were concerned with the pressing social issues of the time and advocated for a public administration that was more responsive to the needs of society, more engaged with ethical issues, and more committed to social equity. Key themes of New Public Administration include:

• A focus on addressing social equity and justice.

• The importance of bringing values and democracy into the administration discourse.

• A call for public administrators to be change agents who actively work to improve society.

• The recognition of the political nature of public administration. New Public Management New Public Management (NPM) emerged in the 1980s as a response to criticisms of the inefficiencies of traditional public administration. NPM shifted the focus towards efficiency, effectiveness, and the adoption of private sector management practices within the public sector. It was characterized by an emphasis on performance measurement, market- based mechanisms, and customer service orientation. Scholars like Christopher Hood played a significant role in shaping the NPM agenda. Key principles underpinning NPM include:

• Performance Measurement: Focus on results through setting clear, measurable objectives and benchmarks.

• Market-based Mechanisms: Introducing competition into the public sector, such as through outsourcing, privatization, and public- private partnerships, with the aim of reducing costs and improving service quality.

• Decentralisation: Shifting authority and responsibility from central to local government or from government agencies to private or semi- private organisations to enhance responsiveness and flexibility.

• Customer Orientation: Viewing citizens as customers and focusing on improving their satisfaction with public services.

• Management Autonomy: Granting more autonomy to public managers, including in financial matters, staffing, and operations, to encourage innovation and responsiveness to local needs.

• Accountability and Transparency: Emphasizing accountability for performance and outcomes, not just adherence to procedures. New Public Governance New Public Governance (NPG) emerged in the early 21st century as a response to the principles of both New Public Administration and New Public Management. NPG aims to address their limitations and adapt to the complexities of modern governance. In particular, in contrast to New Public Management’s focus on efficiency, performance measurement, and market mechanisms, NPG highlights the importance of public value, participation, and governance through networks and partnerships. Key characteristics of NPG include:

• Collaboration and Networks: Relationships and networks between various stakeholders are critical to effective governance. This includes government agencies, non-profit organizations, the private sector, and the community. Public problems are too complex for any single entity to solve alone; collaborative approaches are needed.

• Public Value: Public value encompasses not just economic value but also social value and democratic value. Public value is created through engagement with citizens and stakeholders, reflecting their preferences and priorities.